| Putting It All |
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Phases of Generalization
Abstract by the Online Academy
Schumaker, J. B., Deshler, D. D., Zemitzsch, A., & Warner, M. W. (1993).
The visual imagery strategy. Lawrence, KS: The University of Kansas.
The promotion of individual control is the ultimate goal of strategic learning. Once students learn certain strategies, teachers need to help ensure that students do not discontinue their use because of difficulty encountered when trying to apply these strategies in other situations. Students with learning disabilities, in particular, need to be shown that a strategy is a useful tool only when they can apply it independently and in appropriate situations. For many of these students, the act of transferring their knowledge to practice is a hurdle they can't jump, either because they don't know how, they do it poorly, or they can't adapt to different situations. For these reasons, students must be taught how to generalize their use of strategies.
Generalization is that part of self-regulation where the reader is engaged in strategic learning and is able to profitably apply strategies to new situations and tasks. This is so important for student performance that researchers at the University of Kansas Center for Research on Learning have included it in their eight-stage instructional procedure to be used in teaching learning strategies to low achieving students. In all their models, generalization is that final stage of instruction that will help determine the degree to which students can generalize the acquired strategy to the "real" world and continue to use the strategy over a period of time. This final step is important because it provides a vehicle for commitment on the part of the students to use the strategy in a variety of situations, and it gives procedures to be used by teachers to ensure that this happens.
After students have learned a new strategy by achieving mastery of the first seven stages of instruction, they are ready to move to the final stage, generalization. The overall goal of the four phases of this stage is to ensure that teachers make students aware of situations and circumstances in which the strategy can be used. These four phases are orientation, activation, adaptation, and maintenance.
ORIENTATION
In Phase I, orientation, the teacher reviews the strategy and states the purpose of the lesson and his/her expectations. Students are actively engaged in the lesson as rationales for using generalization are discussed. At all times individual effort is emphasized. Discussion centers on naming situations where the strategy might be applicable, talking about the flexible use of the strategy, and even thinking about combining it with other strategies. Equating the different strategies to tools in a tool box and choosing the appropriate tool for the right task is a useful analogy here. As in all the phases, cue cards are made by students and are used as reminders about when and how to use certain strategies for certain books or assignments. Teachers continue to show the connection between strategies mastered and future success in school by encouraging students to affirm the notion that their knowledge base continues to grow as effort is exerted. Emphasis is on Strategy + Effort = Success. As this phase comes to an end, the teacher reviews the lesson and previews what will happen in the next lesson.
ACTIVATION
Phase II, activation, follows much of the same format as the orientation phase. Again, the teacher gives an advance organizer by reviewing the previous lesson, stating the purpose of this lesson, and stating expectations. Students are asked to think about their use of the strategy and write their goals for using it. Daily assignments, using the cue cards and a variety of reading materials, are completed outside class over a two-week period. Students are shown how to report about their use of the strategy. The teacher gives each student a brief oral quiz which includes a short discussion about where the strategy was used and any problems encountered or adjustments made while using it. Students are prompted to provide feedback to themselves as they are using the strategy. When students reach mastery, they are ready to move to the next phase.
ADAPTATION
Phase III, adaptation, gives students a chance to use the strategy and practice adapting it. Beginning with the advance organizer, the teacher again reviews the previous lesson, states the purpose of the lesson, gives expectations, and has students come up with a definition of adapt (change to fit your needs). Discussion centers on the cognitive, or mental, functions performed during use of the strategy. The teacher then guides students through what they should be thinking and asking themselves as they go through the steps. The transforming of new ideas into their own words, ideas, or images is important here. Teachers ensure activation by having students practice adaptations of the strategy in other settings and for other class assignments. Students complete and hand in reports describing at least four of these adaptations.
MAINTENANCE
Phase IV, maintenance, helps ensure that students don't forget the strategy and continue to use it correctly over time. This phase is begun about a week after mastery of adaptation and continues on a monthly basis for a period of four months. The teacher works with students to define maintenance (to keep something working well). An analogy might be drawn here with the tool box mentioned previously. (We keep our tools sharpened on a regular basis, so they will perform well for use when we need them. Emphasis is placed on long term use.) At this point, the teacher might discuss the successes and barriers that students have encountered when using the strategy. They problem solve to help students overcome barriers. They plan a maintenance program: students will make and keep their own charts and plot their percentage scores as they meet with the teacher for routine checks every couple of weeks. At all times the teacher monitors and evaluates students' work and provides feedback.
Where do we go from here? To a new strategy, of course. Remember to incorporate this strategy into some of those assignments as your students move to learn new strategies and find new ways to use them independently.
